A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any road vehicle that can utilize an external source of electricity (such as a wall socket that connects to the power grid) to store electrical energy within its onboard rechargeable battery packs, to power an electric motor and help propelling the wheels. PEV is a subset of electric vehicles, and includes all-electric/battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).[5][6][7] Sales of the first series production plug-in electric vehicles began in December 2008 with the introduction of the plug-in hybrid BYD F3DM, and then with the all-electric Mitsubishi i-MiEV in July 2009, but global retail sales only gained traction after the introduction of the mass production all-electric Nissan Leaf and the plug-in hybrid Chevrolet Volt in December 2010.
Plug-in electric cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. All-electric vehicles have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no air pollution when under all-electric mode, thus (depending on the electricity source) reducing societal dependence on fossil fuels and significantly decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, but recharging takes longer time than refueling and is heavily reliant on sufficient charging infrastructures to remain operationally practical. Plug-in hybrid vehicles are a good in-between option that provides most of electric cars' benefits when they are operating in electric mode, though typically having shorter all-electric ranges, but have the auxiliary option of driving as a conventional hybrid vehicle when the battery is low, using its internal combustion engine (usually a gasoline engine) to alleviate the range anxiety that accompanies current electric cars.
Cumulative global sales of highway-legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles achieved the 1 million unit mark in September 2015,[8] 5 million in December 2018.[9] and the 10 million unit milestone in 2020.[10] Despite the rapid growth experienced, however, the stock of plug-in electric cars represented just 1% of all passengers vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2020, of which pure electrics constituted two thirds.[11]
As of December 2023[update], the Tesla Model Y ranked as the world's top selling highway-capable plug-in electric car in history.[1] The Tesla Model 3 was the first electric car to achieve global sales of more than 1,000,000 units.[12][13] The BYD Song DM SUV series is the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid, with global sales over 1,050,000 units through December 2023.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
As of December 2021[update], China had the world's largest stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars with 7.84 million units, representing 46% of the world's stock of plug-in cars.[20]Europe ranked next with about 5.6 million light-duty plug-in cars and vans at the end of 2021, accounting for around 32% of the global stock.[21][22][23] The U.S. cumulative sales totaled about 2.32 million plug-in cars through December 2021.[24] As of July 2021[update], Germany is the leading European country with cumulative sales of 1 million plug-in vehicles on the road,[25] and also has led the continent plug-in sales since 2019.[22][26]Norway has the highest market penetrationper capita in the world,[27] and also achieved in 2021 the world's largest annual plug-in market share ever registered, 86.2% of new car sales.[28]
BEVs are all-electric vehicles that use only electricity to power the motor, with no internal combustion engine. The energy stored in the rechargeable battery pack is used to power the electric motor, which propels the vehicle. BEVs have no tailpipe emissions and can be charged by plugging into a charging station or using a home charging system.
They are known for their quiet operation, instant torque, and smooth ride, and are also more environmentally friendly than traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. However, the range of a BEV is limited by the size of its battery, so it may not be suitable for long-distance travel.
PHEVs are a hybrid between a traditional gasoline-powered vehicle and an all-electric vehicle. They have both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor powered by a rechargeable battery pack. PHEVs operate as all-electric vehicles when the battery has a sufficient charge, and switch to gasoline power when the battery is depleted.
This provides a longer driving range compared to a pure electric vehicle, as the gasoline engine acts as a range extender. PHEVs can be charged by plugging into a charging station or using a home charging system. They are a good option for those who want the benefits of electric driving, but also need the longer driving range and refueling convenience of a gasoline-powered vehicle.
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.[43]
Advantages compared to ICE vehicles
PEVs have several advantages. These include improved air quality, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, noise reduction, and national security benefits. According to the Center for American Progress, PEVs are an important part of the group of technologies that will help the U.S. meet its goal under the Paris Agreement, which is a 26–28 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2025.[46] New Energy Vehicles are expected to help address issues related to environmental degradation at the global level.[47]"
Plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[5][49] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.[5]
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; similarly, most regions of Canada are primarily powered with hydroelectricity, nuclear, or natural gas which have no or very low emissions at the point of generation; and the state of California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The United Kingdom also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as low carbon sources such as wind turbines dominate the generation mix. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.[49]
Lifecycle GHG emissions are complex to calculate, but compared to ICE cars generally while the EV battery causes higher emissions during vehicle manufacture this excess carbon debt is paid back after several months of driving.[50]
Lower operating and maintenance costs
Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking.[51][49] Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.[51]
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems onboard last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.[51][49]
Less dependence on imported oil
Evolution of oil prices since 1987 (average Brentspot prices – adjusted for U.S. inflation)
For many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest African countries, oil imports have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments, all leading to lower economic growth.[53][54]
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks.[58] A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S. this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.[59] In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.[58][60][61]
As of 2020[update], plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[62]
Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022. BNEF projects that by 2040, long-range electric cars will cost less than US$22,000 expressed in 2016 dollars. BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below US$120 per kWh by 2030, and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available.[63]
Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed.[64][65] Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety.[65][66] Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers.[67] However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.[66]
Battery swapping
Better Place's battery switching station in Israel
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place but was not successful in the United States in the 2010s. As of 2020[update] battery swapping is available in China and is planned for other countries.[68]
Potential overload of local electrical grids
The existing low-voltage network, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight when rates are lower.[66][69][70]
In the five years from 2014 to 2019, EVs increased in number and range, and doubled power draw and energy per session. Charging increased after midnight, and decreased in the peak hours of early evening.[71][72]
Risks associated with noise reduction
The 2011 Nissan Leaf had a switch to manually turn off its electric warning sound system.
Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.[73][74] Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired.[75][76][77] At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.[74] Therefore, in the 2010s laws were passed in many countries mandating warning sounds at low speeds.
Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion.[78] Reignition may occur days or months after the original fire has been extinguished.[79] To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range.[80][page needed][81]
With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.[84][85] Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales.[84] As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.[85]
Car dealerships can play a role in the sales of plug-in electric vehicles. Shown a dealership exhibiting first generation Chevrolet Volts.
There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as a gasoline-powered cars. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales.[84]
Several national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass market adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. A variety of policies have been established to provide direct financial support to consumers and manufacturers; non-monetary incentives; subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure; procurement of electric vehicle for government fleets; and long term regulations with specific targets.[21][90]
Financial incentives for consumers aim to make plug-in electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the still higher up front cost of electric vehicles. Among the financial incentives there are one-time purchase incentives such as tax credits, purchase grants, exemptions from import duties, and other fiscal incentives; exemptions from road, bridge and tunnel tolls, and from congestion pricing fees; and exemption of registration and annual use vehicle fees. Some countries, like France, also introduced a bonus–malus CO2 based tax system that penalize fossil-fuel vehicle sales.[21][90][91]
As of 2020[update], monetary incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles are available, among others, in several European Union member states, China, the United States, the UK, Japan, Norway, some provinces in Canada, South Korea, India, Israel, Colombia, and Costa Rica.[21][92][93]
Timeline of national targets for full ICE phase out[clarification needed]or 100% ZEV car sales[21][94]
Among the non-monetary incentives there are several perks such allowing plug-in vehicles access to bus lanes and high-occupancy vehicle lanes, free parking and free charging.[90] In addition, in some countries or cities that restrict private car ownership (purchase quota system for new vehicles), or have implemented permanent driving restrictions (no-drive days), the schemes often exclude electric vehicles from the restrictions to promote their adoption.[91][95][92][96]
For example, in Beijing, the license plate lottery scheme specifies a fixed number of vehicle purchase permits each year, but to promote the electrification of its fleet, the city government split the number of purchase permits into two lots, one for conventional vehicles, and another dedicated for all-electric vehicle applicants.[91] In the case of cities with driving alternate-days based on the license plate number, such as San José, Costa Rica, since 2012, São Paulo and Bogotá since 2014, and Mexico City since 2015, all-electric vehicles were excluded from the driving restrictions.[92][96][97][98]
Also, some cities are planning to establish zero-emission zones (ZEZ) restricting traffic access into an urban cordon area or city center where only zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) are allowed access. In such areas, all internal combustion engine vehicles are banned.[101][102]
As of June 2020[update], Oxford is slated to be the first city to implement a ZEZ scheme, beginning with a small area scheduled to go into effect by mid 2021. The plan is to expand the clean air zone gradually into a much larger zone, until the ZEZ encompasses the majority of the city center by 2035.[103][104]
During the 1990s several highway-capable plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were battery electric vehicles. PSA Peugeot Citroën launched several electric "Électrique" versions of its models starting in 1991. Other models were available through leasing mainly in California. Popular models included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV. Some of the latter were sold to the public and were still in use by the early 2010s.[109]
In the late 2000s began a new wave of mass production plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks. However, as of 2011[update], most electric vehicles in the world roads were low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) or electric quadricycles.[110] Sales of low-speed electric vehicles experienced considerable growth in China between 2012 and 2016, with an estimated NEV stock between 3 million to 4 million units, with most powered by lead-acid batteries.[111]
As of December 2019[update], according to the International Energy Agency, there were about 250 models of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars available for sale in the world, up from 70 in 2014.[21] There are also available several commercial models of electric light commercial vehicles, plug-in motorcycles, all-electric buses, and plug-in heavy-duty trucks.
The Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance is the world's leading light-duty electric vehicle manufacturer. Since 2010, the Alliance's global all-electric vehicle sales totaled almost 725,000 units, including those manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors through December 2018, now part of the Alliance.[113] Its best selling all-electric Nissan Leaf was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2013 and 2014.[114]Tesla is the world's second largest plug-in electric passenger car manufacturer with global sales since 2012 of over 532,000 units as of December 2018[update].[115] Its Model S was the world's top selling plug-in car in 2015 and 2016,[114][116] and its Model 3 was the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2018.[112]
The BYD Qin is the Chinese company's all-time top selling model.
Ranking next is BYD Auto with more than 529,000 plug-in passenger cars delivered in China through December 2018.[117][118][119][120] Its Qin plug-in hybrid is the company's top selling model with almost 137,000 units sold in China through December 2018.[114][121][120] As of December 2018[update], the BMW Group had sold more than 356,000 plug-in cars since inception of the BMW i3, accounting for global sales its BMW i cars, BMW iPerformance plug-in hybrid models, and MINI brand plug-ins.[122]
BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with 61,722 units sold, followed by Tesla, with 50,580 units.[123][124][125] BYD was again the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer in 2016, with 101,183 units delivered, one more time followed again by Tesla with 76,243 units.[117][126] In 2017 BYD ranked for the third consecutive year as the global top plug-in car manufacturer with 113,669 units delivered. BAIC ranked second with 104,520 units.[119][121] The BAIC EC-Series all-electric city car ranked as the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017 with 78,079 units sold in China.[127]
After 10 years in the market, Tesla was the world's top selling plug-in passenger car manufacturer in 2018, both as a brand and by automotive group, with 245,240 units delivered and a market share of 12% of all plug-in cars sold globally in 2018.[112][128][129] BYD Auto ranked second with 227,152 plug-in passenger cars sold worldwide, representing a market share of 11%.[129][130]
Sales and main markets
Detroit Electric car charging in 1919. During the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at about 30,000 vehicles.[131]
The global stock of plug-in electric vehicles between 2005 and 2009 consisted exclusively of all-electric cars, totaling about 1,700 units in 2005, and almost 6,000 in 2009. The plug-in stock rose to about 12,500 units in 2010, of which, only 350 vehicles were plug-in hybrids.[132][133] By comparison, during the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles.[131]
After the introduction of the first mass-production plug-in cars by major carmakers in late 2010, plug-in car global sales went from about 50,000 units in 2011, to 125,000 in 2012, almost 213,000 in 2013, and over 315,000 units in 2014.[134] By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans reached the one million sales milestone,[8][135] almost twice as fast as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV).[8][135]
Light-duty plug-in electric vehicle sales in 2015 increased to more than 565,000 units in 2015, about 80% from 2014, driven mainly by China and Europe.[134] Both markets passed in 2015 the U.S. as the largest plug-in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales, with China ranking as the world's best-selling plug-in electric passenger car country market in 2015.[142][143] About 775,000 plug-in cars and vans were sold in 2016, and cumulative global sales passed the 2 million milestone by the end of 2016.[117] The global market share of the light-duty plug-in vehicle segment achieved a record 0.86% of total new car sales in 2016, up from 0.62% in 2015 and 0.38% in 2014.[144]
Cumulative global light-duty plug-in vehicle sales passed the 3 million milestone in November 2017.[145] About 1.2 million plug-ins cars and vans were sold worldwide in 2017, with China accounting for about half of global sales. The plug-in car segment achieved a 1.3% market share.[127][146] Plug-in passenger car sales totaled just over 2 million in 2018, with a market share of 2.1%.[112] The global stock reached 5.3 million light-duty plug-in vehicles in December 2018.[9][136]
By the end of 2019 the stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles totaled 7.55 million units, consisting of 4.79 million all-electric cars, 2.38 million plug-in hybrid cars, and 377,970 electric light commercial vehicles. Plug-in passenger cars still represented less than 1% of the world's car fleet in use.[21] In addition, there were about half a million electric buses in circulation in 2019, most of them in China.[21] In 2020, global cumulative sales of light-duty plug-in vehicles passed the 10 million unit milestone.[10]
Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2018 (0.4%),[147] rose to 1 out of every 200 motor vehicles (0.48%) in 2019,[148] and by the end of 2020, the stock share of plug-in cars on the world's roads was 1%.[11]
Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2022[112][149][150][151][152]
All-electric cars have outsold plug-in hybrids for several years, and by the end of 2019, the shift towards battery electric cars continued. The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, increased to 66:34 in 2017, and rose to 69:31 in 2018, and reached 74:26 in 2019.[112][149][150] Out of the 7.2 million plug-in passenger cars in use at the end of 2019, two thirds were all-electric cars (4.8 million).[21]
Since 2016, China has the world's largest fleet of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, after having overtaken during 2016 both the U.S. and Europe in terms of cumulative sales.[117][153][154] The fleet of Chinese plug-in passenger cars represented 46.7% of the global stock of plug-in cars at the end of 2019. Europe listed next with 24.8%, followed by the U.S. with 20.2% of the global stock in use.[21]
As of December 2017[update], 25 cities accounted for 44% of the world's stock of plug-in electric cars, while representing just 12% of world passenger vehicle sales. Shanghai led the world with cumulative sales of over 162,000 electric vehicles since 2011, followed by Beijing with 147,000 and Los Angeles with 143,000. Among these cities, Bergen has the highest market share of the plug-in segment, with about 50% of new car sales in 2017, followed by Oslo with 40%.[155]
As of December 2021[update], China had the world's largest stock of highway legal plug-in cars with 7.84 million units, corresponding to about 46% of the global plug-in car fleet in use. Of these, all-electric cars accounted for 81.6% of the all new energy passenger cars in circulation.[20] Plug-in passenger cars represent 2.6% of all cars on Chinese roads at the end of 2021.[20] Domestically produced cars dominate new energy car sales in China, accounting for about 96% of sales in 2017.[127][162] Another particular feature of the Chinese passenger plug-in market is the dominance of small entry level vehicles.[163]
China also dominates the plug-in light commercial vehicle and electric bus deployment, with its stock reaching over 500,000 buses in 2019, 98% of the global stock, and 247,500 electric light commercial vehicles, 65% of the global fleet. In addition, the country also leads sales of medium- and heavy duty electric trucks, with over 12,000 trucks sold, and nearly all battery electric.[21] Since 2011, combined sales of all classes of new energy vehicles (NEV) totaled almost 5.5 million at the end of 2020.[160][153][156][157][158][159]
The BAIC EC-Series all-electric city car was China's the top selling plug-in car in 2017 and 2018, and also the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017. BYD Auto was the world's top selling car manufacturer in 2016 and 2017.[164][119][121][127][165] In 2020, the Tesla Model 3 listed as the best-selling plug-in car with 137,459 units.[166]
Europe
Evolution of annual registrations of plug-in electric passenger cars in Europe, 2011–2021
Europe had about 5.67 million plug-in electric passenger cars and light commercial vehicles in circulation at the end of 2021, consisting of 2.9 million fully electric passenger cars, 2.5 million plug-in hybrid cars, and about 220,000 light commercial all-electric vehicles.[21][22][23] The European stock of plug-in passenger is the world's second largest market after China, accounting for 30% of the global car stock in 2020.[21] Europe also has the second largest electric light commercial vehicle stock, 33% of the global stock in 2019.[21]
In 2020, and despite the strong decline in global car sales brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, annual sales of plug-in passenger cars in Europe surpassed the 1 million mark for the first time.[167][168] In addition, Europe outsold China in 2020 as the world's largest plug-in passenger car market for the first time since 2015.[169][170]
The plug-in car segment had a market share of 1.3% of new car registrations in 2016, rose to 3.6% in 2019, and achieved 11.4% in 2020.[171][172][173] The largest country markets in the European region in terms of EV stock and annual sales are Germany, Norway, France, the UK, the Netherlands, and Sweden.[21] Germany surpassed Norway in 2019 as the best selling plug-in market, leading both the all-electric and the plug-in hybrid segments in Europe.[173] and in 2020 listed as the top selling European country market for the second consecutive year.[21][168]
Germany
Annual registration of plug-in electric cars in Germany by type of powertrain between 2010 and 2021
The stock of plug-in electric cars in Germany is the largest in Europe, there were 1,184,416 plug-in cars in circulation on January 1, 2022, representing 2.5% of all passenger cars on German roads, up from 1.2% the previous year.[174][175] As of December 2021[update], cumulative sales totaled 1.38 million plug-in passenger cars since 2010.[176][177] Germany had a stock of 21,890 light-duty electric commercial vehicles in 2019, the second largest in Europe after France.[21]
Germany listed as the top selling plug-in car market in the European continent in 2019 and achieved a market share of 3.10%.[140][178] Despite the global decline in car sales brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, the segment market share achieved a record 13.6% in 2020.[179] with a record volume of 394,632 plug-in passenger cars registered in 2020, up 263% from 2019, allowing Germany to be listed for a second year running as the best selling European plug-in market.[180][179] Both years, the German market led both the fully electric and plug-in hybrid segments.[180]
Despite to the continued global decline in car sales brought by the shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic, and computer chips in particular, a record 681,410 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 325,449 plug-in hybrids and 355,961 all-electric cars, allowing the segment's market share to surge to 26.0%.[176]
France
The Renault Zoe is the country's all-time best selling plug-in electric car with over 100,000 units delivered since inception through June 2020.[181]
As of December 2021[update], a total of 786,274 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in France since 2010, consisting of 512,178 all-electric passenger cars and commercial vans, and 274,096 plug-in hybrids.[182] Of these, over 60,000 were all-electric light commercial vehicles.[21][183]
The market share of all-electric passenger cars increased from 0.30% of new car registered in 2012, to 0.59% in 2014.[184][185] After the introduction of the super-bonus for the scrappage of old diesel-power cars in 2015, sales of both pure electric cars and plug-in hybrids surged, rising the market share to 1.17% in 2015,[186][142] climbed to 2.11% in 2018, and achieved 2.8% in 2019.[21][187]
Despite the global strong decline in car sales brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, and the related global computer chip shortage, plug-in electric car sales in France rose to a record of 315,978 light-duty plug-in vehicles in 2021, up 62% from 2020.[182] The plug-in electric passenger car market share rose to 11.2% in 2020 and achieved a record market share of 18.3% in 2021.[188] The combined light-duty plug-in vehicle segment (cars and utility vans) achieved a market share of 15.1% in 2021.[182]
As of December 2019[update], France ranked as the country with the world's second largest stock of light-duty electric commercial vehicles after China, with 49,340 utility vans in use.[21] The market share of all-electric utility vans reached a market share of 1.22% in 2014, and 1.77% in 2018.[187][189]
United Kingdom
Registration of plug-in electric cars in the UK between 2011 and 2021
About 745,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles had been registered in the UK up until December 2021, consisting of 395,000 all-electric vehicles and 350,000 plug-in hybrids.[190]
A surge of plug-in car sales took place in Britain beginning in 2014. Total registrations went from 3,586 in 2013, to 37,092 in 2016, and rose to 59,911 in 2018.[191][192][193] Again sales surged to 175,339 units in 2020, despite the global strong decline in car sales brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, and achieved record sales of 305,281 units in 2021.[194]
The market share of the plug-in segment went from 0.16% in 2013 to 0.59% in 2014, and achieved 2.6% in 2018.[191][195][193] The segment market share was 3.1% in 2019, rose to 10.7% in 2020,[196] and achieved a record 18.6% in 2021.[190]
As of June 2020[update], the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the all-time top selling plug-in car in the UK over 46,400 units registered, followed by the Nissan Leaf more than 31,400 units.[197]
Norway
Historical evolution of the Norwegian plug-in electric car segment market share of new car sales and monthly records, 2011–2023
As of 31 December 2021[update], the stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Norway totaled 647,000 units in use, consisting of 470,309 all-electric passenger cars and vans (including used imports), and 176,691 plug-in hybrids.[198] Norway was the top selling plug-in country market in Europe for three consecutive years, from 2016 to 2018.[27][199] Until 2019, Norway listed as the European country with the largest stock of plug-in cars and vans, and the third largest in the world.[21]
The Norwegian plug-in car segment market share has been the highest in the world for several years, reaching 39.2% in 2017, up from 29.1% in 2016,[200][201] 49.1% in 2018,[202] rose to 55.9% in 2019,[203] and reached 74.7% in 2020, meaning that three out of every four new passenger car sold in Norway in 2020 was a plug-in electric.[204] In September 2021, the combined market share of the plug-in car segment achieved a new record of 91.5% of new passenger car registrations, 77.5% for all-electric cars and 13.9% for plug-in hybrids, becoming the world's highest-ever monthly plug-in car market share attained by any country.[205][206] The plug-in segment market share rose to 86.2% in 2021.[28]
In October 2018, Norway became the first country where 1 in every 10 passenger cars in use was a plug-in electric vehicle.[207][208] and by the end of 2021, plug-in electric cars were 22.1% of all passenger cars on Norwegian roads.[209] The country's fleet of plug-in electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because 98% of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydropower.[210][211] Norway is the country with the largest EV ownership per capita in the world.[212][213][214]
Netherlands
The Volkswagen ID.3 was the best selling plug-in car in the Netherlands in 2020.[215]
As of 31 December 2021[update], there were 390,454 highway-legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in use in the Netherlands, consisting of 137,663 fully electric cars, 243,664 plug-in hybrid cars and 9,127 light duty plug-in commercial vehicles.[216] Plug-in passenger cars represented 4.33% of all cars on Dutch roads at the end of 2021.[216]
As of July 2016[update], the Netherlands had the second largest plug-in ownership per capita in the world after Norway.[217] Plug-in sales fell sharply in 2016 due to changes in tax rules, and as a result of the change in government's incentives, the plug-in market share declined from 9.9% in 2015, to 6.7% in 2016, and fell to 2.6% in 2017.[218][219] The intake rate rose to 6.5% in 2018 in anticipation of another change in tax rules that went into effect in January 2019,[218] and increased to 14.9% in 2019, and rose 24.6% in 2020, and achieved a record 29.8% in 2021.[216]
United States
Comparison of plug-in car market shares in California vs the American market (2011–2023)
As of December 2023[update], cumulative sales of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars in the U.S. totaled 4,684,128 units since 2010.[220] The U.S. has the world's third largest stock of plug-in passenger cars, after having been overtaken by Europe in 2015 and China during 2016.[153][154]California is the largest plug-in regional market in the country, with 1 million plug-in cars sold in California by November 2021.[221]
The Tesla Model 3electric car has been the best selling plug-in car in the U.S. for two consecutive years, 2018 and 2019.[222][223] Cumulative sales of the Model 3 surpassed in 2019 the discontinued Chevrolet Voltplug-in hybrid to become the all-time best selling plug-in car in the country, with an estimated 300,471 units delivered since inception, followed by the Tesla Model Sall-electric car with about 157,992, and the Chevrolet Volt with 157,054.[224]
Japan
As of April 2018[update], the Nissan Leaf was listed as the all-time top selling plug-in car in Japan, with 100,000 units delivered.[225]
As of December 2020[update], Japan had a stock of plug-in passenger cars of 293,081 units on the road, consisting of 156,381 all-electric cars and 136,700 plug-in hybrids.[226] The fleet of electric light commercial vehicles in use totaled 9,904 units in 2019.[226]
Plug-in sales totaled 24,660 units in 2015 and 24,851 units in 2016.[21] The rate of growth of the Japanese plug-in segment slowed down from 2013, with annual sales falling behind Europe, the U.S. and China during 2014 and 2015.[142][227] The segment market share fell from 0.68% in 2014 to 0.59% in 2016.[111] Sales recovered in 2017, with almost 56,000 plug-in cars sold, and the segment's market share reached 1.1%.[228] Sales fell slightly in 2018 to 52,000 units with a market share of 1.0%.[229] The market share continued declining to 0.7% in 2019 and 0.6% in 2020.[226]
The decline in plug-in car sales reflects the Japanese government and the major domestic carmakers decision to adopt and promote hydrogenfuel cell vehicles instead of plug-in electric vehicles.[230][231]
Top selling PEV models
All-electric cars and vans
The Tesla Model 3 is the world's all-time best selling highway legal plug-in electric car, with global sales of about 1.3 million units.[232][233]
The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Nissan Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's all-time best selling electric car,[12] and, in June 2021, became the first electric car to sell 1 million units globally.[13] The Model 3 has been the world's best selling plug-in electric car for four consecutive years, from 2018 to 2021.[232][234][112][149] The United States is the leading market with an estimated 395,000 units sold,[224][235] followed by the European market with over 180,000 units delivered, both through December 2020.[236][237] The Model 3 was the best-selling plug-in car in China in 2020, with 137,459 units sold.[166]
Ranking second is the Nissan Leaf with cumulative global sales since inception of 577,000 units by February 2022.[238] As of September 2021[update], Europe listed as the biggest market with more than 208,000 units sold,[239] of which, 72 620 units have been registered in Norway, the leading European country market.[240] As of December 2021[update], U.S. sales totaled 165,710 units through December 2021,[241] and 157,059 units in Japan.[242]
The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV has dominated sales in the Chinese market in 2021, selling over 550,000 units since its release in July 2020.[243]
Europe's all-time top selling all-electric light utility vehicle is the Renault Kangoo Z.E., with global sales of over 57,500 units through November 2020.[244]
The following table presents global sales of the top selling highway-capable electric cars and light utility vehicles produced since the introduction of the first modern production all-electric car, the Tesla Roadster, in 2008 and December 2021. The table includes all-electric passenger cars and utility vans with cumulative sales of about or over 200,000 units.
Top selling highway legal electric cars and light utility vehicles produced between 2008 and December 2021(1)
Notes: (1) Vehicles are considered highway-capable if able to achieve at least a top speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). (2) Sales in main China only. (3) BMW i3 sales includes the REx variant (split is not available).
Plug-in hybrids
The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid, with about 300,000 units sold globally through January 2022.[257]
The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid according to JATO Dynamics.[258] Global sales achieved the 250,000 unit milestone in May 2020,[259] and the 300,000 mark in January 2022.[257] Europe is the Outlander P-HEV leading market with 126,617 units sold through January 2019,[260] followed by Japan with 42,451 units through March 2018.[261] European sales are led by the UK with 36,237 units delivered, followed by the Netherlands with 25,489 units, both through March 2018.[261]
Ranking second is the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid (Toyota Prius Prime) with about 225,000 units sold worldwide of both generations through December 2020.[250][262] The United States is the market leader with over 93,000 units delivered through December 2018.[263] Japan ranks next with about 61,200 units through December 2018,[229][262] followed by Europe with almost 14,800 units through June 2018.[262][264]
Combined global sales of the Chevrolet Volt and its rebadged models totaled about 186,000 units by the end of 2018,[263][265][266][267][268] including about 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2016.[269] Volt sales are led by the United States with 157,054 units delivered through December 2019,[224] followed by Canada with 17,311 units through November 2018.[266][267] Until the end of 2018, the Chevrolet Volt family listed as the world's top selling plug-in hybrid, when it was surpassed by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV.[258]
The following table presents plug-in hybrid models with cumulative global sales of around or more than 100,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug-in hybrid car, the BYD F3DM, in 2008 up until December 2021:
Top selling highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars between 2008 and December 2021
Notes: (1) In addition to the Volt sold in North America, combined sales of the Volt/Ampera family includes about 10,000 Vauxhall/Opel Ampera and about 1,750 Volts sold in Europe,[275][276] 246 Holden Volt sold in Australia,[277] and 4,317 units of the Buick Velite 5 sold only in China (rebadged second generation Volt).[268] (2) Sales in China only. BYD Qin total does not include sales of the all-electric variant (Qin EV300).
^ abAkhtar, Riz (2024-01-29). "Tesla Model Y confirmed as world's best-selling car in 2023, beating Rav4 and Corolla". The Driven. Retrieved 2024-01-31. The Model Y first emerged as a best seller in the first quarter of last year, and now data firm Jato Dynamics has confirmed that it maintained this status for the entire year, selling 1.23 million cars.
^Pontes, José (2023-08-02). "World EV Sales Now 19% Of World Auto Sales!". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2023-08-06. "The top 5 global best selling plug-in electric cars during the first half of 2023 were the Tesla Model Y (579,552), the Tesla Model 3 (279,320), the BYD Song (BEV + PHEV) with 259,723, the BYD Qin Plus (BEV + PHEV) with 204,529 and the BYD Yuan Plus/Atto 3 (201,505). The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV sold 122,052 units, the BYD Han (BEV + PHEV) 96,437 units and the VW ID.4 86,481 units."
^ abcdefDavid B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. See definition on pp. 2.
^ abcdefgh"Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)". Center for Sustainable Energy, California. Archived from the original on 2010-06-20. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
^"PEV Frequently Asked Questions". Duke Energy. Archived from the original on 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2010-12-24.
^ abcJeff Cobb (2015-09-16). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-09-16. Cumulative global sales totaled about 1,004,000 highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty vehicles by mid-September 2015.
^ abWatson, Frank (2019-02-11). "December global electric vehicle sales set new record: S&P Global Platts data". S&P Global Platts. London. Retrieved 2019-02-11. At the end of 2018, some 5.3 million plug-in EVs were on the roadA total of 1.45 million light-duty pure electric vehicles were sold in 2018.
^ abShanahan, Jess (2021-01-21). "There are now more than 10 million electric vehicles on the road". Zap Map. Retrieved 2021-01-21. there are now more than 10 million of these vehicles on the road around the world. According to EV Volumes, the total is now 10.8 million worldwide
^ abInternational Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (2021-04-29). "Global EV Outlook 2021: Accelerating ambitions despite the pandemic". International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2021-05-16. After a decade of rapid growth, in 2020 the global electric car stock hit the 10 million mark, a 43% increase over 2019, and representing a 1% stock share. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) accounted for two thirds of new electric car registrations and two-thirds of the stock in 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ abHolland, Maximilian (2020-02-10). "Tesla Passes 1 Million EV Milestone & Model 3 Becomes All Time Best Seller". CleanTechnica. Archived from the original on April 12, 2020. Retrieved 2020-05-15. Tesla's quarterly reports, meanwhile, had put the Model 3's cumulative sales at 447,980 at the end of 2019.
^ abShahan, Zachary (2021-08-26). "Tesla Model 3 Has Passed 1 Million Sales". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2021-08-26.
^ abcGasgoo News (2022-01-12). "China's car parc amounts to 302 million units by end of 2021". Retrieved 2022-01-15. China's new energy vehicle (NEV) parc amounted to 7.84 million units by the end of 2021, 81.63% of which were full-electric vehicles. As of Dec. 2021, NEVs accounted for 2.6% of the country's total car parc.
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxInternational Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (June 2020). "Global EV Outlook 2020: Enterign the decade of electric drive?". IEA Publications. Retrieved 2020-06-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)See Statistical annex, pp. 247–252 (See Tables A.1 and A.12). The global stock of plug-in electric passenger vehicles totaled 7.2 million cars at the end of 2019, of which, 47% were on the road in China. The stock of plug-in cars consist of 4.8 million battery electric cars (66.6%) and 2.4 million plug-in hybrids (33.3%). In addition, the stock of light commercial plug-in electric vehicles in use totaled 378 thousand units in 2019, and about half a million electric buses were in circulation, most of which are in China.
^ abcEuropean Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (2022-02-02). "ACEA Report: New Car Registrations by Fuel Type, European Union" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2022-02-02. See tables in pp.3 and 4 - Figures include the European Union countries, + EFTA (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) and the UK.
^ abEuropean Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (2022-03-01). "ACEA Report: New Light Commercial Vehicle Registrations by Fuel Type, European Union" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2022-03-02. See tables in pp.3 and 4 - Figures include the European Union countries, + EFTA (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) and the UK. A total of 38,999 new plug-in electric vans were sold in 2020, and 69,416 in 2021.
^Argonne National Laboratory (January 2022). "Light Duty Electric Drive Vehicles Monthly Sales Updates: Plug-In Vehicle Sales". Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 2022-01-13. Cumulatively, 607,567 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold in 2021. In total, 2,322,291 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold since 2010.
^Bundersministerium für Wirstschaft und Energie (2021-08-02). "Erstmals rollen eine Million Elektrofahrzeuge auf deutschen Straßen" [For the first time, a million electric vehicles are rolling on German roads] (Press release) (in German). BMWI. Archived from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2021-10-12.
^Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2021-01-08). "Pressemitteilung Nr. 02/2021 - Fahrzeugzulassungen im Dezember 2020 - Jahresbilanz" [Press release No. 02/2021 - Vehicle registrations in December 2020 - Annual balance sheet] (in German). KBA. Archived from the original on 2021-07-19. Retrieved 2021-01-21. A total of 394,632 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 200,469 plug-in hybrids (6.9% market share) and 194,163 all-electric cars (6.7% market share).
^ abCobb, Jeff (17 January 2017). "Top 10 Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries of 2016". HybridCars.com. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
^ abKane, Mark (2022-01-03). "Norway Sets Plug-In Car Sales Record For The End Of The Year 2021". InsideEVs. Retrieved 2022-01-09.
^"Notice 2009–89: New Qualified Plug-in Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Credit". Internal Revenue Service. 2009-11-30. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^"Consumer Energy Tax Incentives: Plug-In Hybrid Conversion Kits". U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original on 2011-07-28. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^"Plug-in Vehicle Tracker: What's Coming, When". Plug In America. Archived from the original on 2013-01-11. Retrieved 2012-01-15.
^PRTM Management Consultants, Inc. (April 2011). "The China New Energy Vehicles Program – Challenges and Opportunities" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 2020-06-19. See Acronyms and Key Terms, pp. v
^"All-Electric Vehicle Basics". Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, US DoE. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
^Kurani; et al. (2007-10-16). "Driving Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Reports from U.S. Drivers of HEVs converted to PHEVs, circa 2006–07" (PDF). Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-08-12. Retrieved 2010-12-29. See definitions in pp. 1–2.
^Matthew A. Kromer & John B. Heywood (May 2007). "Electric Powertrains: Opportunities and Challenges in the U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet" (PDF). Sloan Automotive Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2010-12-29. See definitions in pp. 30–31.
^ ab"Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Basics". Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, US DoE. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
^"Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)". Center for Energy and the Global Environment, Virginia Tech. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
^"What Is A Plug-in Hybrid Car?". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
^Holger Wittich, Patrick Lang (2021-02-22). "Neue Mercedes C-Klasse (W206)". auto motor und sport.
^"How Electric Turbochargers Are Changing Internal Combustion". 10 February 2023.
^ ab"How to Get a Plug-In Hybrid". CalCars. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
^"Top 7 Issues for an Electric Car Conversion". HybridCars.com. 2009-06-02. Archived from the original on 2011-05-27. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
^"Investing in Charging Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric Vehicles - Center for American Progress". Center for American Progress. Retrieved 2018-08-30.
^Akhilesh, Kumar (2024-06-12). "Political Economy of STI in China: Analyzing Official Discourse on Science, Technology and Innovation-Driven Development in the Contemporary China". BRICS Journal of Economics. 5 (2): 131–154. doi:10.3897/brics-econ.5.e120897. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
^"Study: Particulate emissions from tire wear is higher than from tailpipes". Green Car Reports. 12 March 2020. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
^ abcdefSperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon (2009). Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability. Oxford University Press, New York. pp. 22–26 and 114–139. ISBN 978-0-19-537664-7.
^"Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change". Carbon Brief. 2019-05-13. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
^ abcdSaurin D. Shah (2009). David B. Sandalow (ed.). Chapter 2: Electrification of Transport and Oil Displacement (1st ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 29, 37 and 43. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. in "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"
^Emily Masamitsu (2009-10-01). "How Much Is That Hybrid Electric Really Saving You?". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
^"Impact of High Oil Prices on African Economies" (PDF). African Development Bank. 2009-07-29. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
^Mitchell, William J.; Borroni-Bird, Christopher; Burns, Lawrence D. (2010). Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century (1st. ed.). The MIT Press. pp. 85–95. ISBN 978-0-262-01382-6. Archived from the original on 2010-06-09. Retrieved 2010-07-18. See Chapter 5: Clean Smart Energy Supply.
^Andrew Grove and Robert Burgelman (December 2008). "An Electric Plan for Energy Resilience". McKinsey Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
^ abJon Wellinhoff (2009). David B. Sandalow (ed.). Chapter 4: The CashBack Car (1st ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 65–82. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. in "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"
^"Car Prototype Generates Electricity, And Cash". Science Daily. December 9, 2007. Retrieved 2010-07-17.
^Cleveland, Cutler J.; Morris, Christopher (2006). Dictionary of Energy. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 473. ISBN 0-08-044578-0.
^"Pacific Gas and Electric Company Energizes Silicon Valley With Vehicle-to-Grid Technology". Pacific Gas & Electric. 2007-04-07. Archived from the original on 2009-12-09. Retrieved 2011-01-12.
^Siddiq Khan & Martin Kushler (June 2013). "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities" (PDF). American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. Retrieved 2013-07-09. ACEEE Report Number T133.
^Randall, Tom (2016-02-25). "Here's How Electric Cars Will Cause the Next Oil Crisis". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2016-02-25. See embedded video.
^Alan L. Madian; et al. (2009). David B. Sandalow (ed.). Chapter 5: The Impact of Plug-in Hybrids on U.S. Oil Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. The Brookings Institution. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. in "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"
^ abKevin Morrow; et al. (November 2008). "Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Review. Final Report" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Program. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
^ abcTodd Woody & Clifford Krauss (2010-02-14). "Cities Prepare for Life With the Electric Car". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
^"Moving Forward in Raleigh PGR Plan". Project Get Ready. Archived from the original on 2009-03-07. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
^Deshp, Trupti; e; Paladugula, Anantha Lakshmi (2020-10-13). "The Importance of Selling Electric Vehicles and Their Batteries Separately". The Wire Science. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
^Jim Motavalli (2010-07-08). "Will Electric Cars Cause More Summer Power Outages?". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
^B. Naghibi, M. A. S. Masoum and S. Deilami, "Effects of V2H Integration on Optimal Sizing of Renewable Resources in Smart Home Based on Monte Carlo Simulations," in IEEE Power and Energy Technology Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 73-84, Sept. 2018. doi: 10.1109/JPETS.2018.2854709
^Berman, Bradley (22 April 2020). "Study of 3,900 electric cars: How the Tesla Model 3 transformed EV charging habits". Electrek.
^"Utilities are feeling growing pains from the evolution of electric vehicles". FleetCarma. 22 April 2020. Archived from the original on 23 April 2020.
^Nuckols, Ben (3 March 2007). "Blind people: Hybrid cars pose hazard". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
^ ab"Electric cars and noise: The sound of silence". Economist. 7 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
^"Incidence of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Crashes by Hybrid Electric Passenger Vehicles" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. September 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-05. Technical Report DOT HS 811 204
^Sarah Simpson (August 2009). "Are Hybrid Cars Too Quiet to Be Safe for Pedestrians?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
^Spotnitz, R.; Franklin, J. (2003). "Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells". Journal of Power Sources. 113 (1): 81–100. Bibcode:2003JPS...113...81S. doi:10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00488-3.
^"04.8 EV fire reignition". EV Fire Safe. Retrieved 2022-06-06.
^"Lithium Ion technical handbook" (PDF). Gold Peak Industries Ltd. November 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-07.
^Winter, M.; Brodd, J. (2004). "What Are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors?". Chemical Reviews. 104 (10): 4245–69. doi:10.1021/cr020730k. PMID 15669155.
^General Motors (2011-01-19). "Detroit First Responders Get Electric Vehicle Safety Training". General Motors News. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
^Nissan (2010). "2011 LEAF First Responder's Guide" (PDF). Nissan North America. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
^ abcMatt Ritchel (2015-11-24). "A Car Dealers Won't Sell: It's Electric". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
^ abDan Mihalascu (4 November 2022). "Turkey's National Carmaker Togg Starts Production Of 2023 C SUV EV". insideevs.com.
^"TOGG Official Website". togg.com.tr. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
^Jay Ramey (30 December 2019). "Turkey Bets on EVs with the Pininfarina-Designed TOGG". autoweek.com.
^"'A game changer': Türkiye inaugurates its first national car plant". TRT World. 30 October 2022.
^ abcdWappelhorst, Sandra; Hall, Dale; Nicholas, Mike; Lutsey, Nic (February 2020). "Analyzing Policies to Grow the Electric Vehicle Market in European Cities" (PDF). International Council on Clean Transportation. Retrieved 2020-06-18.
^ abcZhuge, Chengxiang; Wei, Binru; Shao, Chunfu; Shan, Yuli; Dong, Chunjiao (April 2020). "The role of the license plate lottery policy in the adoption of Electric Vehicles: A case study of Beijing". Energy Policy. 139: 111328. Bibcode:2020EnPol.13911328Z. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111328. Available online 24 February 2020.
^ abcCamila Salazar (2013-07-06). "Carros híbridos y eléctricos se abren paso en Costa Rica" [Hybrid and electric cars make their way in Costa Rica]. La Nación (San José) (in Spanish). Retrieved 2013-07-06.
^Vallejo Uribe, Felipe (2019-07-13). "Sancionada ley que da beneficios a propietarios de vehículos eléctricos en Colombia" [Went into effec law that gives benefits to owners of electric vehicles in Colombia] (in Spanish). Revista Movilidad Eléctrica Sostenible. Archived from the original on 2020-06-19. Retrieved 2020-06-19.
^Tan, Christopher (18 February 2020). "Singapore Budget 2020: Push to promote electric vehicles in move to phase out petrol and diesel vehicles". The Straits Times. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
^"The great crawl". The Economist. 2016-06-18. Retrieved 2020-06-18. From the print edition.
^ ab"Decreto 575 de 2013 Alcalde Mayor" [Major's Decree 575 of 2013] (in Spanish). Alcaldía de Bogotá. 2014-12-18. Retrieved 2020-06-18.
^"Elétricos e híbridos: São Paulo aprova lei de incentivo" [All-electric and hybrids: São Paulo approves incentives law]. Automotive Business (in Portuguese). 2014-05-28. Retrieved 2014-09-21.
^Notimex (2015-03-01). "Autos eléctricos, exentos de tenencia y Hoy No Circula" [Electric cars exempted from ownership tax and "Hoy No Circula" driving restrictions]. Dinero e Imagen (in Spanish). Retrieved 2020-06-19.
^"Norwegian EV policy". Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2020-06-18.
^Cobb, Jeff (2016-03-08). "Norway Aiming For 100-Percent Zero Emission Vehicle Sales By 2025". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2020-06-18.
^ abcdefWappelhorst, Sandra (May 2020). "The end of the road? An overview of combustionengine car phase-out announcements across Europe" (PDF). International Council on Clean Transportation. Retrieved 2020-06-21.
^McGrath, Matt (2019-04-08). "London's ULEZ: How does it compare?". Retrieved 2019-06-19.
^Oxford City Council (2020-03-20). "Oxford's Zero Emission Zone - 20/03/2020 update". Oxford City Council. Archived from the original on 2020-06-21. Retrieved 2020-06-18.
^Tobin, Dominic (2019-03-12). "Clean air zone charges: where are Britain's low emission zones?". buyacar.co.uk. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
^"City of Amsterdam to ban polluting cars from 2030". Reuters. 2019-05-02. Retrieved 2019-05-02.
^ abcdefghiBurch, Isabella (March 2020). "Survey of Global Activity to Phase Out Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles" (PDF).
^ abHarvey, Fiona (2016-12-02). "Four of world's biggest cities to ban diesel cars from their centres". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
^"Rome latest city to announce car ban, will ban diesel cars from historical center starting 2024". 28 February 2018.
^Sherry Boschert (2006). Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada. ISBN 978-0-86571-571-4.
^Danny King (2011-06-20). "Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Sales To Climb". Edmunds.com Auto Observer. Archived from the original on 2012-05-27. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
^ abInternational Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (June 2017). "Global EV Outlook 2017: Two million and counting" (PDF). IEA Publications. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-06-07. Retrieved 2018-01-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)See pp. 5–7, 12–22, 27–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 49–51.
^ abcdefgJose, Pontes (2019-01-31). "Global Top 20 - December 2018". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2019-01-31. "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."
^"Alliance members achieve combined sales of 10.76 million units in 2018". Groupe Renault Media (Press release). Paris. 2019-01-30. Retrieved 2019-02-02. As of December 2018, a total of 724,905 electric vehicles have been sold by the Alliance since 2010.
^ abcdCobb, Jeff (2017-01-26). "Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year In A Row". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-26. See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.
^Kane, Mark (2019-01-02). "Tesla Production And Deliveries Graphed Through Q4 2018". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2019-01-02.
^Sharan, Zachary (2017-02-04). "Tesla Model S & Nissan LEAF Clocked As World's Best-Selling Electric Cars In 2016". EV Volumes. CleanTechnica.com. Retrieved 2017-02-04.
^ abcdCobb, Jeff (2017-01-16). "The World Just Bought Its Two-Millionth Plug-in Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-17. An estimated 2,032,000 highway-legal plug-in passenger cars and vans have been sold worldwide at the end of 2016. The top selling markets are China (645,708 new energy cars, including imports), Europe (638,000 plug-in cars and vans), and the United States (570,187 plug-in cars). The top European country markets are Norway (135,276), the Netherlands (113,636), France (108,065), and the UK (91,000). Total Chinese sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles, including buses and truck, totaled 951,447 vehicles. China was the top selling plug-in car market in 2016, and also has the world's largest stock of plug-in electric cars.
^Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-07). "China's BYD Becomes World's Third-Largest Plug-in Car Maker". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-07.
^ abc"Top 10 Automakers by 2017 NEV Sales". Gasgoo China Automotive News. 2018-01-18. Retrieved 2018-01-29. According to the data released by China Passenger Car Association (CPCA), BYD topped the rank with annual NEV delivery of 113,669 units, increasing 11% year on year. With NEV deliveries soaring 125% on an annual basis to 104,520 units, BAIC BJEV took the second place among the top ten automakers.
^ abcdKane, Mark (2019-01-14). "BYD Sold Record 37,000 Electric Cars In December 2018". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2019-01-14. BYD Auto sold in China 227,152 plug-in cars, up 109% from 2017. During 2018 BYD Qin sales totaled 47,425 units and BYD Tang sales totaled 37,146 units.
^ abcKane, Mark (2018-01-26). "BYD #1 In World For Plug-In Electric Car Sales In 2017, Beats Tesla Again". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2018-01-29. "BYD sold 108,612 passenger plug-in cars in China in 2017, enough to make it the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer for the third year in a row."
^Mark Kane (2019-01-11). "BMW Sold 142,617 Plug-In Electric Cars In 2018". Inside EVs. Retrieved 2019-01-12. The BMW Group sold 142,617 plug-in electric cars in 2018, and cumulative sales since inception of the BMW i3 totaled over 356,000 BMW and MINI electrified vehicles. BMW set a target of cumulative sales of 500,000 units by the end of 2019.
^Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-12). "Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06. The Tesla Model S was the top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 with 50,366 units sold, followed by the Nissan Leaf (about 43,000), the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (over 40,000), the BYD Qin (31,898) and the BMW i3 (24,057). The Model S is also the second-best seller ever with 107,148 sales since its mid-2012 launch, behind the Nissan Leaf and ahead of GM’s Volt/Ampera family, credited with 106,000 sales.
^John Voelcker (2016-01-15). "Who Sold The Most Plug-In Electric Cars In 2015? (It's Not Tesla Or Nissan)". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-01-17. BYD Auto delivered 31,898 Qins, 18,375 Tangs, and 7,029 e6s during 2015. Added to that are small numbers of the T3 small commercial van and e5 battery-electric compact sedan, along with 2,888 Denza EV compact hatchbacks built by its joint venture with Daimler. Altogether, BYD sold a total of 61,722 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in China in 2015.
^Natasha Li (2016-03-04). "Alternative Energy Vehicles Account HALF of BYD's Profits for the Very First Time in 2015". Gasgoo Automotive News. Archived from the original on 2016-03-08. Retrieved 2016-03-07. BYD Auto delivered 69,222 new energy vehicles in China in 2015, including buses, of which, a total of 61,722 were passenger vehicles, mostly plug-in hybrids, led by the Qin and Tang.
^Jin Peiling (2017-01-10). "谁是2016年电动汽车市场的霸主？" [Who is the dominant electric vehicle market in 2016?] (in Chinese). Daily Observation Car. Archived from the original on 2017-01-16. Retrieved 2017-01-15. BYD sold more than 100,000 new energy passenger cars in China in 2016, about 30,000 more units than Tesla Motors. The BYD Tang was the top selling plug-in car in China in 2016 with 31,405 units delivered.
^ abcdJose Pontes (2018-01-18). "China December 2017". EV Sales. Retrieved 2018-01-19. Sales of plug-in electric cars in China, including imports, totaled 600,174 units in 2017. The BAIC EC-Series was the top selling plug-in with 78,079 units sold in China, making the city car the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017. The top selling plug-in hybrid was the BYD Song PHEV with 30,920 units. BYD Auto was the top selling car manufacturer. Foreign brands captured only about 4% of plug-in sales in 2017, with about half by Tesla. The Chinese plug-in car market represented roughly half of the 1.2 million plug-ins sold worldwide in 2017.
^Jose, Pontes (2019-02-03). "2018 Global Sales by OEM". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2019-02-03. "Tesla led plug-in car sales among automotive groups in 2018, with 245,240 units delivered, followed by BYD with 229,338, and the Renault-Nissan Alliance with 192,711."
^ ab"BMW sells over 140,000 plug-in cars throughout 2018". electricdrive.com. 2019-01-10. Retrieved 2019-01-14. The global share of plug-in electric cars by brand in 2018 was led by Tesla with 12%, followed by BYD with 11%, BMW with 9%, BAIC with 6%, and Roewe and Nissan, both with 5%.
^"BYD NEV sales in 2018 exceed 240,000 units". Gasgoo. 2019-01-08. Retrieved 2019-01-14. BYD Auto sold 247,811 new energy vehicles in 2018 (including commercial heavy-duty vehicles), up 118% from 2018, of which, 227,152 were passenger cars, consisting of 103,263 units all-electric cars and 123,889 units were plug-in hybrid vehicles. In addition, 20,659 new energy commercial vehicles were sold in 2018.
^ abJustin Gerdes (2012-05-11). "The Global Electric Vehicle Movement: Best Practices From 16 Cities". Forbes. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
^International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (May 2016). "Global EV Outlook 2016: Beyond one million electric cars" (PDF). IEA Publications. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-24. Retrieved 2016-09-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)See pp. 4–5, and 24–25 and Statistical annex, pp. 34–37.
^Clark, Pilita; Campbell, Peter (2016-08-31). "Motor Industry: Pressure on the Pump". Financial Times. Retrieved 2016-09-01.
^ abNic Lutsey (2015-09-29). "Global milestone: The first million electric vehicles". International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). Archived from the original on 2016-04-12. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
^ abInternational Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (May 2018). "Global EV Outlook 2017: 3 million and counting" (PDF). IEA Publications. Retrieved 2018-10-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)See pp. 9–10, 19–23, 29–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 107–113. The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 3,109,050 units, of which, 1,928,360 were battery electric cars..
^European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (2017-02-01). "New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2016" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2018-10-23. See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2015.
^European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (2018-02-01). "New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2017" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2018-10-23. See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2017 and Q1-Q4 2016.
^International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (May 2019). "Global EV Outlook 2019: Scaling-up the transition to electric mobility" (PDF). IEA Publications. Retrieved 2020-05-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)See Statistical annex, pp. 210–213. The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 5,122,460 units at the end of 2018, of which, 3,290,800 (64.2%) were battery electric cars (See Tables A.1 and A.2)..
^ abEuropean Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (2020-02-06). "New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2019" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2020-05-11. See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2018 and 2019.
^Irle, Roland (2021-01-19). "Global Plug-in Vehicle Sales Reached over 3,2 Million in 2020". EV-volumes.com. Retrieved 2021-01-20. Plug-in sales totaled 3.24 million in 2020, up from 2.26 million in 2019. Europe, with nearly 1.4 million untits surpassed China as the largest EV market for the first time since 2015.
^ abcCobb, Jeff (2016-01-18). "Top Six Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-12. About 520,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were sold worldwide in 2015, with cumulative global sales reaching 1,235,000. The United States was the leading market with 411,120 units sold since 2008, followed by China with 258,328 units sold since 2011. Japan ranks third, followed by the Netherlands (88,991), Norway (77,897), France (74,291), and the UK (53,254). Over 21,000 units were sold in Japan in 2015.
^Berman, Brad (2016-02-13). "US Falls Behind Europe and China in Global Plug-in Vehicle Market". Plugincars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
^Vaughan, Adam (2017-12-25). "Electric and plug-in hybrid cars whiz past 3m mark worldwide". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-01-20. "The number of fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars on the world’s roads passed the 3 million mark in November 2017."
^EVvolumes.com (January 2018). "Global Plug-in Sales for 2017-Q4 and the Full Year (prelim.)". EVvolumes.com. Retrieved 2018-02-17. Global registrations totaled around 1.2 million units in 2017, 57 % higher than 2016. These include all global BEV and PHEV passenger cars sales, light trucks in USA/Canada and light commercial vehicle in Europe. The segment market share was 1.3%, and in December the global plug-in share touched the 2 % mark for the first time.
^Coren, Michael J. (2019-01-25). "E-nough? Automakers may have completely overestimated how many people want electric cars". Quartz. Retrieved 2019-01-25. Despite exponential growth, with a record 2 million or so EVs sold worldwide last year, only one in 250 cars on the road is electric.
^"Global Electric Vehicle Stock Reaches 7.2 Million". EV Statistics. 2020-06-20. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
^ abcJose, Pontes (2020-01-31). "Global Top 20 - December 2019". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2020-05-10. "Global sales totaled 2,209,831 plug-in passenger cars in 2019, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 74:26, and a global market share of 2.5%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 300,075 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 367,820 units, followed by BYD with 229,506."
^ abHertzke, Patrick; Müller, Nicolai; Schenk, Stephanie; Wu, Ting (May 2018). "The global electric-vehicle market is amped up and on the rise". McKinsey & Company. Retrieved 2019-01-27. See Exhibit 1: Global electric-vehicle sales, 2010-17.
^Jose, Pontes (2022-01-30). "World EV Sales — Tesla Model 3 Wins 4th Consecutive Best Seller Title In Record Year". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2022-02-02. That allowed them (BEVs) to end the year with 71% of plugin EV sales, up 2 percentage points from the 69% of 2020, but still below the 74% of 2019.
^"EV-Volumes - The Electric Vehicle World Sales Database". www.ev-volumes.com.
^ abcdCobb, Jeff (2016-12-27). "China Takes Lead As Number One In Plug-in Vehicle Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-06. As of November 2016[update], cumulative sales of plug-in vehicles in China totaled 846,447 units, including passenger and commercial vehicles, making it the world's leader in overall plug-in vehicle sales. With cumulative sales of about 600,000 passenger plug-ins through November 2016, China is also the global leader in the passenger plug-in car segment, ahead of Europe and the U.S.
^ abKing, Danny (2016-12-29). "China far ahead of US, Europe in total electric vehicle sales". Autoblog.com. Retrieved 2017-01-08. Last year, China overtook both the US and Europe in annual sales of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids. This year, it will move ahead of both the US and Europe in cumulative plug-in vehicle sales.
^Dale Hall, Hongyang Cui, Nic Lutsey (2018-10-30). "Electric vehicle capitals: Accelerating the global transition to electric drive". The International Council on Clean Transportation. Retrieved 2018-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Click on "Download File" to get the full report, 15 pp.
^ abLiu Wanxiang (2017-01-12). "中汽协：2016年新能源汽车产销量均超50万辆,同比增速约50%" [China Auto Association: 2016 new energy vehicle production and sales were over 500,000, an increase of about 50%] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. Retrieved 2017-01-12. Chinese sales of new energy vehicles in 2016 totaled 507,000, consisting of 409,000 BEV vehicles and 98,000 PHEVs.
^ abAutomotive News China (2018-01-16). "Electrified vehicle sales surge 53% in 2017". Automotive News China. Retrieved 2018-01-19. Chinese sales of domestically-built new energy vehicles in 2017 totaled 777,000, consisting of 652,000 all-electric vehicles and 125,000 plug-in hybrid vehicles. Sales of domestically-produced new energy passenger vehicles totalled 579,000 units, consisting of 468,000 all-electric cars and 111,000 plug-in hybrids. Only domestically built all-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids and fuel cell vehicles qualify for government subsidies in China.
^ ab"中汽协：2018年新能源汽车产销均超125万辆，同比增长60%" [Chia Automobile Association: In 2018, the production and sales of new energy vehicles exceeded 1.25 million units, a year-on-year increase of 60%] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. 2019-01-14. Retrieved 2019-01-15. Chinese sales of new energy vehicles in 2018 totaled 1.256 million, consisting of 984,000 all-electric vehicles and 271,000 plug-in hybrid vehicles.
^ abKane, Mark (2020-02-04). "Chinese NEVs Market Slightly Declined In 2019: Full Report". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2020-05-30. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 1,206,000 units in 2019, down 4.0% from 2018, and includes 2,737 fuel cell vehicles. Battery electric vehicle sales totaled 972,000 units (down 1.2%) and plug-in hybrid sales totaled 232,000 vehicles (down 14.5%). Sales figures include passenger cars, buses and commercial vehicles..
^ abChina Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2021-01-14). "Sales of New Energy Vehicles in December 2020". CAAM. Retrieved 2021-02-08. NEV sales in China totaled 1.637 million in 2020, consisting of 1.246 million passenger cars and 121,000 commercial vehicles.
^China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2022-01-12). "Sales of New Energy Vehicles in December 2021". CAAM. Retrieved 2022-01-13. NEV sales in China totaled 3.521 million in 2021 (all classes), consisting of 3.334 million passenger cars and 186,000 commercial vehicles.
^Dune, Michael J. (2016-12-14). "China's Automotive 2030 Blueprint: No. 1 Globally In EVs, Autonomous Cars". Forbes. Retrieved 2016-12-14.
^Majeed, Abdul (2016-09-29). "China faces acid test in vehicle emissions". Business Line. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
^"China's new energy PV wholesale volume in 2018 shoots up 83% year on year". Gasgoo. 2019-01-11. Retrieved 2019-01-21. Sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 1,016,002 units in 2018.The BAIC EC series ranked as China's top selling plug-in car in 2018 with 90,637 units delivered.
^"Top 10 NEV Models by 2017 Sales". Gasgoo China Automotive News. 2018-01-18. Retrieved 2019-01-15. Sales of the BAIC EC series totaled 78,079 cars in 2018 and ranked as China's top selling plug-in car.
^ ab"Domestic EV makers rival Tesla in China, can they win?". SDchina.com. 2021-02-05. Retrieved 2021-02-19. See table: Top 10 NEV sold in China in 2020.
^Schmidt, Matthias (2020-12-03). "Exclusive: Western Europe's plug-in electric car market surpasses 1 million landmark". Schmidt Automotive Research. Retrieved 2021-01-16.
^ abJacobs, Frank (2021-01-07). "Yes, 2021 is the year EVs go mainstream". Fleet Europe. Archived from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2021-01-12. Close to 1.25 million EVs were sold in Europe in 2020, around 10% of the total
^Carrington, Damian (2021-01-19). "Global sales of electric cars accelerate fast in 2020 despite pandemic". The Guardian. Retrieved 2021-01-19. The EV-volumes.com data showed the five highest national sales were in China (1.3m), Germany (0.4m), the US (0.3m), France and the UK (both 0.2m).Global sales of plug-ins cars totaled 3 million in 2020, 43% up from 2018. The market share of plug-in vehicles reached 4.2% of the global market, up from 2.5% in 2019. Tesla was the best selling brand with almost 500,000 units delivered.
^""罚出来的"爆发式增长 欧洲新能源车销量首次超越中国" ["Punished" explosive growth, European new energy vehicle sales surpassed China for the first time] (in Chinese). Sina Finance. 2021-02-08. Retrieved 2021-02-08.
^Kane, Mark (2021-02-20). "European Countries Listed By Plug-In Electric Car Market Share In Q1-Q4 2020". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2021-02-21. The average market share of new passenger plug-in electric cars in Europe more than tripled in 2020 to 11.4% (from less than 3.6% in 2019). Figures includes the European Union, EFTA (Norway, Switzerland, Iceland) and the UK, using available registration data from the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA).
^LeSage, Jon (2017-02-06). "Renault Zoe Ekes By Mitsubishi Outlander in 2016 European Plug-in Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-02-06.
^ abFrance Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2020-02-11). "En Europe, les ventes de voitures électriques en hausse de 80 % en 2019" [In Europe, sales of electric cars up 80% in 2019] (in French). AVERE. Archived from the original on 2020-06-21. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
^Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2022-03-04). "Pressemitteilung Nr. 10/2022 - Der Fahrzeugbestand am 1. Januar 2022" [Press release No. 10/2021 - The vehicle stock on January 1, 2022] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2022-03-14. There were 618,460 all-electric cars and 565,956 plug-in hybrids registered in Germany on January 1, 2022 (total 1,184,416 plug-in cars). The share of all-electric cars rose to 1.3% percent (+100.1%) and that of plug-in hybrids doubled to 1.2%, for a total of 2.5% of plug-in cars on German roads on January 1, 2022.
^Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2021-03-02). "Pressemitteilung Nr. 8/2021 - Der Fahrzeugbestand am 1. Januar 2021" [Press release No. 8/2021 - The number of vehicles on January 1st, 2021] (in German). KBA. Archived from the original on 2021-03-09. Retrieved 2021-03-02. The share of electric cars (BEV ) rose from 0.3 percent (136,617) on January 1, 2020 to 0.6 percent (309,083) and that of hybrid cars from 1.1 percent (539,383) to 2.1 percent (1.004.089). The number of plug-in hybrid vehicles grew from 102,175 to 279,861 (+ 173.9%). Their share tripled to 0.6 percent. (Translated from the original)
^ abKraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2022-01-05). "Pressemitteilung Nr. 01/2022 - Fahrzeugzulassungen im Dezember 2021 - Jahresbilanz" [Press release No. 01/2022 - Vehicle registrations in December 2021 - Annual balance] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2022-01-09. A total of 681,410 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 325,449 plug-in hybrids (12.4% market share) and 355,961 all-electric cars (13.6% market share).
^Kane, Mark (2021-01-16). "Germany: Plug-In Car Share At 26%: Records Everywhere In December 2020". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2022-01-09. The cumulative number of plug-in electric cars sold in Germany over the past seven years is close to 700,000 (since 2013)
^Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2020). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2019" [New Registrations Barometer December 2019] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2019-05-14. See the tab Kraftsoffarten: A total of 45,348 plug-in hybrids (market share 1.3%) and 63,321 all-electric cars (market share 1.8%) were registered in Germany in 2019.
^ abKraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2021-01-08). "Pressemitteilung Nr. 02/2021 - Fahrzeugzulassungen im Dezember 2020 - Jahresbilanz" [Press release No. 02/2021 - Vehicle registrations in December 2020 - Annual balance sheet] (in German). KBA. Archived from the original on 2021-07-19. Retrieved 2021-01-10. A total of 394,632 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 200,469 plug-in hybrids (6.9% market share) and 194,163 all-electric cars (6.7% market share).
^ abFrance Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2021-01-08). "Baromètre des immatriculations - En décembre 2020, les véhicules électriques et hybrides rechargeables ont représenté plus de 16 % du marché français : du jamais vu !" [Registrations barometer - In December 2020, electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles represented more than 16% of the French market: unprecedented!] (in French). AVERE France. Archived from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2021-01-23. See infograh "Parc Roulant et Immatriculations Annuelles depuis Janvier 2010" - As of December 2020, there were 470,295 plug-in electric cars and utility vans, consisting of 337,986 all-electric cars and vans, and 132,309 plug-in hybrids registered since 2010.
^Kane, Mark (2020-07-03). "Renault EV Sales In France Is Booming: 17,650 ZOE Sold In H1 2020". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2020-07-20.
^ abcFrance Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2022-01-07). "[Baromètre] 20,4 % de parts de marché en décembre 2021 pour les véhicules électriques et hybrides rechargeables… et 15 % sur l'ensemble de 2021 !" [Barometer: 20.4% market share in December 2021 for electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles… and 15% for the whole of 2021!] (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2022-01-08. See infograh "Barometre mensuel de la mobilité électrique Chiffres clés du mois de septembre 2021 - Evolution du Parc Roulant Automobiles Depuis Janvier 2010" - As of December 2021, a total of 786,274 plug-in electric passenger cars and vans have been registered in France, consisting of 512,178 all-electric cars and vans, and 274,096 plug-in hybrids in circulation. Registrations of all-electric cars and vans totaled 174,191 units in 2021, and plug-in hybrids totaled 141,787 units, for a total of 315,978 units. The light-duty plug-in vehicle segment achieved a market share of 15.1%
^France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2021-10-06). "En septembre 2021, les véhicules électriques et hybrides rechargeables ont représenté près de 18 % du marché français" [Barometer In September 2021, electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles represented nearly 18% of the French market] (in French). AVERE France. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-12. See infograh "Barometre mensuel de la mobilité électrique Chiffres clés du mois de septembre 2021 - Evolution du Parc Roulant Automobiles Depuis Janvier 2010" - As of September 2021, a total of 687,876 plug-in electric passenger cars and vans have been registered in France, consisting of 453,143 all-electric cars and vans, and 234,733 plug-in hybrids in circulation.
^Autoactu.com (May 2016). "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations de voitures électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric car registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2016-05-14. See "Ventes de voitures électriques en 2016/2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010" It shows all electric car registrations between 2010 and 2016.
^Yoann Nussbaumer (2013-01-16). "+115% pour les ventes de voitures électriques en France pour 2012" [Electric car sales in France increased 115% in 2011] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2015-02-03.
^France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-01-08). "Immatriculations des hybrides rechargeables : La barre des 5.000 est franchie !" [Plug-in hybrid registrations: The 5,000 barrier is achieved!] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-14. A total of 5,006 plug-in hybrids were registered in France in 2015.
^ abFrance Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2019-01-09). "Baromètre annuel : près de 40 000 véhicules électriques immatriculés en France en 2018 !" [Annual barometer: nearly 40,000 electric vehicles registered in France in 2018!] (in French). AVERE. Archived from the original on 2019-01-17. Retrieved 2019-01-18. A total of 53,745 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in France in 2018 consisting of 31,055 all-electric cars plus 1,148 REx vehicles, 8,103 electric utility vans, and 13,439 plug-in hybrid cars. The plug-in car segment achieved a market share of 2.1% of new car registrations in the country in 2018. Includes revised figures for 2017
^Pontes, José (2022-01-18). "32% Plugin Vehicle Share In France! Tesla Model 3 = #8 In Overall Market". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2022-01-18. With December at 32% plugin share (19% BEV) and the full 2021 share ending at 18.3% (9.8% BEV)
^Automobile Propre (August 2016). "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations d'utilitaires électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric utility van registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2016-10-02. See "Ventes d’utilitaires électriques en 2016/2015/2014 for all-electric utility van registrations. Light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of new van sales in the country in 2014, and rose to 1.30% in 2015.
^ abGoodall, Olly (2022-01-07). "2021 sees largest-ever increase in plug-in sales". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2022-01-08. ... the cumulative total of plug-in vehicles on UK roads – as of the end of December 2021 – to over 740,000. This total comprises around 395,000 BEVs and 350,000 PHEVs.Overall in 2021, there were more than 190,000 sales of BEVs in the UK, with over 114,000 sales of PHEVs. Plug-in vehicles represented 18.6% of market share in 2021.
^ abSociety of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2014-01-07). "December 2013 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2014-01-12. A total of 2,254 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013.
^Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (2018-01-05). "December – EV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2018-01-11.Registrations in 2017 totaled 47,263 plug-in electric vehicles consisting of 13,597 all-electric cars and 33,6663 plug-in hybrids. Of these, a total of 45,187 cars were eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant. Since its launch in 2011, a total of 127,509 cars eligible for the PICG have been registered through December 2017. A total of 2,540,617 new cars were registered in 2017, resulting in a plug-in electric car market share of 1.86% of new car sales.
^ abSociety of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (2019-01-07). "December – EV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2019-01-17.Registrations in 2018 totaled 59,911 plug-in electric vehicles consisting of 15,474 all-electric cars and 44,437 plug-in hybrids. A total of 2,367,147 new cars were registered in 2018, resulting in a plug-in electric car market share of 2.53% of new car sales.
^Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (2022-01-06). "UK automotive looks to green recovery strategy after -29.4% fall in new car registrations in 2020". SMMT. Retrieved 2022-01-08. Download the file "December 2021" for detailed data for 2021 and revised 2020.
^Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2015-01-07). "December 2014 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2015-01-08. A total of 14,518 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2014, consisting of 6,697 pure electrics and 7,821 plug-in hybrids, up from 3,586 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013. A total of 2,476,435 new cars were registered in 2014.
^Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (2021-01-06). "UK automotive looks to green recovery strategy after -29.4% fall in new car registrations in 2020". SMMT. Retrieved 2021-02-22.
^Lane, Ben (December 2020). "Electric car market statistics". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
^Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) (January 2022). "Antall elbiler og ladbare hybrider i Norge" [Number of electric cars and rechargeable hybrids in Norway] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening. Archived from the original on 2021-01-27. Retrieved 2022-01-07. Click on the tab "Elbil" for the stock of electric cars and "Ladbar hybrid" for the stock of plug-in hybrids. As of 31 December 2021[update], the stock of registered light-duty plug-in electric vehicles totaled 647,000 units, consisting of 470,309 battery electric vehicles and 176,691 plug-in hybrids.
^Bratzel, Stefan (2019-01-16). "E-Mobility 2019: An International Comparison of Important Automotive Markets" (PDF). Center of Automotive Management. Bergisch Gladbach. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-01-21. Retrieved 2019-01-21.
^Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV). "Bilsalget i 2017" [Car sales in 2017] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 2018-01-10. Retrieved 2017-01-10.
^Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) (2017-01-05). "Elbilsalget: Ned i fjor – venter ny vekst i år" [EV Sales: Down from last year - awaiting new growth this year] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening. Retrieved 2017-01-18.
^Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2019-01-02). "Bilsalget i 2018" [Car sales in 2018] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 2019-02-07. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
^Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2020). "Bilsalget i 2019" [Car sales in 2019] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2020-02-10.
^Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2021-01-05). "Bilsalget i desember og hele 2020" [Car sales in December and throughout 2020] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2021-01-07.
^Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2021-10-01). "Car sales in September 2021" [Car sales in September 2021] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
^Kane, Mark (2021-10-02). "Norway: All-Electric Car Sales Reach New Record In September 2021". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
^Kane, Mark (2018-10-07). "10% Of Norway's Passenger Vehicles Are Plug Ins". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
^Miley, Jessica (2 October 2018). "45% of New Cars Sold in Norway in September were All-Electric Vehicles". Interesting Engineering. Retrieved 10 November 2018. Despite the huge increase in new electric cars on the road, EVs still only account for roughly 10% of all of Norway's vehicles.
^Norsk Elbilforening (January 2022). "Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff" [Passenger car stock in Norway by fuel] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2022-01-07. See graph under "Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff" - As of 31 December 2021[update], there were 15.95% all-electric cars and 6.18% plug-in hybrid cars in use on Norwegian roads. Combined plug-in electric passenger cars represented 22.13% of all passenger cars in circulation in the country.
^Figenbaum, Erik; Kolbenstvedt, Marika (June 2016). "Learning from Norwegian Battery Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle users". Institute of Transport Economics (TØI), Norwegian Centre for Transport Research. Retrieved 2016-08-17. TØI report 1492/2016. See pp. 1.
^Alister Doyle & Nerijus Adomaitis (2013-03-13). "Norway shows the way with electric cars, but at what cost?". Reuters. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
^Joly, David (2015-10-16). "Norway is A Model For Encouraging Electric Car Sales". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
^Agence France-Presse (2011-05-15). "Electric cars take off in Norway". The Independent. Archived from the original on May 17, 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
^AVERE (2012-06-07). "Norwegian Parliament extends electric car initiatives until 2018". AVERE. Archived from the original on 2013-10-24. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
^Jose, Pontes (2021-01-07). "Netherlands December 2020". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
^ abc"Electric Vehicles Statistics in the Netherlands (up to and including December 2021)" (PDF). Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) - Netherlands Enrerprise Agency. RVO. 2022-01-14. Retrieved 2022-01-19. As of 31 December 2021[update], there were 390,454 highway-legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in use in the Netherlands, consisting of 137,663 fully electric cars, 243,664 plug-in hybrid cars and 9,127 light duty plug-in commercial vehicles. Plug-in passenger cars represented 4.33% of all cars on Dutch roads at the end of 2021. The market share of the plug-in passenger car segment was 29.8% in 2021. Source includes figures from 2016 to 2021. Note: an improved methodology was introduced beginning January 2021. Some numbers in this new version are different than statistics published before in the old format.
^Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-01). "Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car: Concentration of plug-in electrified car registrations per 1,000 people". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-04. As of July 2016[update], Norway had a concentration of registered plug-in cars per 1,000 people of 21.52, the Netherlands of 5.63, California of 5.83, and the United States national average was 1.52.
^ ab"Elektrisch Rijden – Personenauto's en laadpunten Analyse over 2018" [Electric Driving - Passenger cars and charging points - Analysis for 2018] (PDF). Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) - Dutch National Office for Enterprising - (in Dutch). RVO. January 2019. Retrieved 2020-05-11. As of 31 December 2018[update], there were 145,882 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in the Netherlands, consisting of 97,702 plug-in hybrids, 44,984 pure electric cars, and 3,196 all-electric light utility vans. With a total of 24,273 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs registered by the end of December 2018, the plug-in hybrid is the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the Netherlands. The Tesla Model S is the best selling all-electric car with 12,990 units registered.
^Cobb, Jeff (2016-05-09). "Norway Is Fourth Country To Register 100,000 Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-05-09. As of April 2016[update], the United States is the leading country market with a stock of about 450,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles delivered since 2008. China ranks second with around 300,000 units sold since 2011, followed by Japan with about 150,000 plug-in units sold since 2009, both through March 2016. European sales are led by Norway with over 100,000 units registered by the end of April 2016.
^Argonne National Laboratory (January 2024). "Light Duty Electric Drive Vehicles Monthly Sales Updates: Plug-In Vehicle Sales". Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 2024-01-18. Cumulatively, 1,402,371 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold in 2023. In total, 4,684,128 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold since 2010.PEVs were 9.1% of all passenger vehicle sales in 2023, up from 6.8% in 2022.
^"California Milestone, 1 Million EVs Sold: Tesla Played Huge Role". InsideEVs. 2022-01-09. Retrieved 2021-11-29.
^Kane, Mark (2019-01-24). "US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: December 2018". InsideEVs. Retrieved 2019-01-24. See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" and "U.S. Plug-in Car Sales (cumulative)"
^Loveday, Steven (17 January 2020). "FINAL UPDATE: Quarterly Plug-In EV Sales Scorecard". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 8 May 2020. See Chart: "2019 Monthly/Q4 Sales Chart : Annual" - Cumulative sales in the U.S. totaled 329,528 units in 2019, and the top selling models were the Tesla Model 3 with 158,925 units, the Toyota Prius Prime with 23,630, The Tesla Model X with 19,225, the Chevrolet Bolt EV with 16,418 and the Tesla Model S with 14,100 units.
^ abcKane, Mark (2020-01-11). "The Top 10 Plug-In Electric Cars In U.S. - 2019 Edition". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2020-05-19. At the end of 2019, the all-time top selling plug-in cars in the U.S. were the Tesla Model 3 with 300,471 units, Tesla Model S with 157,992, Chevrolet Volt with 157,054 units, Nissan Leaf with 141,907 and the Toyota Prius PHV with 109,003 (by September 2019).
^ abcInternational Energy Agency (IEA) (2021-04-29). "IEA Global EV Data Explorer". International Energy Agency (IEA). Retrieved 2022-01-22. Select Historical: "EV stock" and "EV stock share" + Transport mode: "Cars" and "Vans" + Region" "Japan"
^Kane, Mark (2016-04-02). "Plug-In Electric Car Sales Visualized From 2011 to 2015". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
^Jose Pontes (2018-02-02). "Japan December 2017". EV Sales. Retrieved 2018-02-17. About 56,000 plug-in electric cars were sold in Japan in 2017.
^ abPontes, Jose (2019-01-29). "Japan December 2018". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2019-02-01. A total of 52,013 plug-in cars were sold in Japan in 2018, with a market share of 1.0%. The Nissan Leaf was the top selling plug-in model with 25,722 units, followed by the Prius PHEV with 12,401 units.
^Shirouzu, Norihiko; Lienert, Paul (2015-10-28). "Auto power play: Japan's hydrogen car vs China's battery drive". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
^Deign, Jason (2015-02-10). "Japan Makes a Big Bet on the Hydrogen Economy". Green Tech Media. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
^ abcdefgJose, Pontes (2022-01-30). "World EV Sales — Tesla Model 3 Wins 4th Consecutive Best Seller Title In Record Year". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2022-02-05. "The top 3 global best selling plug-in electric cars in 2021 were the Tesla Model 3 (500,713), the Wuling Hongguang Mini EV (424,138), and the Tesla Model Y (410,517). Nissan Leaf sales totaled 64,201 units and Chery eQ 68,821 units."
^ abMorris, James (2021-05-29). "Tesla Model 3 Is Now 16th Bestselling Car In The World". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-02-05. (The Model 3) ... is now the bestselling EV of all time as well, with over 800,000 units sold overall.
^Jose, Pontes (2021-02-02). "Global Top 20 - December 2020". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2021-02-03. "Global sales totaled 3,124,793 plug-in passenger cars in 2020, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a global market share of 4%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 365,240 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 499,535 units, followed by VW with 220,220."
^C.J. Moore (2021-02-14). "Tesla's commanding lead in U.S. EVs illustrated by registration report". Automotive News. Retrieved 2021-02-14. According to Experian, in 2020 the top U.S. EVs by registrations were the Tesla Model 3 with 95,135 units.
^Gauthier, Michael (2020-02-19). "European Car Sales Climbed To 15.7 Million Units Last Year, Tesla Model 3 Is The EV Champion". Carscoops. Retrieved 2020-05-16. Sales of the Tesla Model 3 in Europe totaled 94,495 units in 2019 (Europe 23) and topped sales in the region in the EV segment.
^Attwood, James (2021-01-27). "Renault Zoe eclipses Tesla Model 3 as Europe's best-selling EV". AutoCar UK. Retrieved 2021-02-14. According to Jato Dynamics, the best selling plug-in electric models across 23 European markets in 2020, including the European Union member states, the UK, Norway and Switzerland, were the Renault Zoe (99,261), Tesla Model 3 (85,713), Volkswagen ID 3 (56,118), Hyundai Kona (47,796), and the VW e-Golf (33,650). The Mercedes-Benz A250e was the top selling plug-in hybrid in 2020, with 29,427 units, followed by the Mitsubishi Outlander (26,673), which led the market in 2019.
^"Nissan LEAF gets a new glow for 2022 with sharp design and advanced tech" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Europe. 2022-02-23. Retrieved 2022-03-04. The Nissan LEAF has always been about making advanced technology and the thrill of electric driving accessible to everyone with over 577,000 customers worldwide.
^Kane, Mark (6 September 2021). "Nissan Celebrates Sales Of 250,000 EVs In Europe". InsideEVs. Retrieved 7 September 2021. The cumulative number includes over 208,000 LEAFs (first- and second-generation), as well as about 42,000 Nissan e-NV200 medium-size vans.
^"Cumulative EV registrations by Make and Model". Elbil Statistikk. 2022-01-29. Retrieved 2022-01-29. Includes 20,661 used imports from neighboring countries as of 29 January 2022[update].
^Kane, Mark (2022-01-06). "US: Nissan LEAF Sales Improved In 2021". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2022-01-28.
^Kane, Mark (2022-01-12). "Japan: Nissan LEAF Sales Cruise At Roughly 11,000 In 2021". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2022-01-28.
^"Hongguang Mini EV sales reached 35,169 units in Sept, up 75% year-on-year". 13 October 2021.
^"Renault, Leader of EV Sales in Europe" (Press release). Île-de-France: Groupe Renault. 2020-12-07. Archived from the original on 2021-01-25. Retrieved 2021-02-21. ZOE remains the number 1 most sold electric passenger car in Europe. More than 268,000 ZOE have been sold in Europe since its launch (As of November 2020).
^Nissan (2020-12-03). "Nissan marks 10 years of LEAF sales, with over 500,000 sold worldwide". Automotive World. Retrieved 2020-12-11. Nissan today celebrated the 10th anniversary of the Nissan LEAF and the delivery of 500,000 LEAF vehicles since the model was first introduced. More than 148,000 have been sold in the United States
^Winton, Neil (2021-03-04). "Europe's Electric Car Sales Will Beat 1 Million In 2021, But Growth Will Slow Later; Report". Forbes. Retrieved 2021-08-30. Globally, according to Inovev, the biggest selling car in 2020 was the Tesla Model 3 – 365,240 with a 17% market share - followed by the Wuling Hong Guang Mini EV (127,651)
^Jose, Pontes (2021-02-04). "Global Electric Vehicle Top 20 — EV Sales Report". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2022-02-05. Global sales of the Tesla Model Y totaled 79,734 units in 2020.
^"2020 Universal Registration Document" (PDF). 2021-03-15. Retrieved 2021-08-31. Since it launched its electric program, Renault has sold more than 370,000 electric vehicles in Europe and more than 397,000 worldwide: 284,800 ZOE, 59,150 KANGOO Z.E., 11,400 FLUENCE Z.E./SM3 Z.E., 4,600 K-Z.E., 31,100 TWIZY, 770 MASTER Z.E. and 5,100 TWINGO Electric in 2020.See pp. 28.
^Groupe Renault (January 2021). "Ventes Mensuelles - Statistiques commerciales mensuelles du groupe Renault" [Monthly Sales -Renault Group monthly sales statistics] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 2022-02-05. Sales figures includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on the corresponding link to download the file "MONTHLY-SALES_DEC-2021.XLSX - 692 KB", and open the tab "Sales by Model" to access sales figures for cumulative sales CYTD 2021. Global Zoe sales totaled 77,529 units inf 2021, including both passenger and LCV variants.
^ abcdZentrum für Sonnenenergieund Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg (ZSW) (2021-03-09). "ZSW Data service renewable energies - Stock of electric cars worldwide". ZSW. Retrieved 2022-02-06. See table: Cumulated new registrations of electric cars (by models) Cumulative sales of the Tesla Model S totaled 308,700 and the end of 2020, Toyota Prius PHEV a total of 225,000, BAIC EC Series 205,600, BAIC EU Series 203,800 and the Tesla Model X 180,600.
^ abShahan, Zachary (2021-10-05). "Tesla Quarterly Sales Growth From 2012 To 2021 — Like Climbing Mt. Everest". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2022-02-06. See interactive chart broken by model: Tesla Vehicle Sales (Quarterly Deliveries)" Select the tab "Model S or Model X" for sales by quarter Q1 to Q3 (2021). Total sales during the first three quarters of 2021 totaled 10,900 Model S and 2,285 Model X cars.
^Jose, Pontes (2021-01-21). "China December 2020". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2022-02-07. "Sales of the Chery eQ totaled 38,214 units in 2020, and sales of the BAIC EU Series 23,365."
^Demandt, Bart (2020). "Chery eQ China Sales Figures". Car Sales Base. Retrieved 2022-02-07. Cumulative sales between 2014 and 2019 totaled 135,973 eQs. Car sales statistics from China only include domestic production and exclude imported models
^Nedela, Andrei (2022-01-28). "BMW i3 Production Reportedly Coming To An End In July". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2022-01-28. The i3 has sold over 220,000 examples around the world by now
^"BAIC EU-Series China Sales Figures". Car Sales Base. 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-08. See table with annual sales 2015-2021.
^"BAIC Beijing EC180 China Sales Figures". Car Sales Base. 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-08. See table with annual sales 2016-2021.
^ abc"Mitsubishi Motors Introduces the All-New Outlander PHEV Model in New Zealand" (Press release). Tokyo: Mitsubishi Motors. 2022-03-04. Retrieved 2022-03-04. As of January 2022[update], about 300,000 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEVs have been sold worldwide.
^Esther de Aragón (2020-06-11). "El Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV consigue llegar a la cifra récord de ventas de 250.000 unidades" [Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV achieves record sales of 250,000 units]. Automotive News Europe (in Spanish). movilidadeléctrica.com. Retrieved 2020-06-16.
^Kane, Mark (2019-03-13). "Outlander PHEV Is Best-Selling Mitsubishi In Europe". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
^ ab"New (MY19) Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV - Summer 2018" (PDF) (Press release). Mitsubishi Motors. 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-10-30. Retrieved 2018-10-29. See tables in pp. 3-4.
^ abc"Toyota sells 1.52 million electrified vehicles in 2017, three years ahead of 2020 target" (Press release). Toyota City, Japan: Toyota. 2018-02-02. Retrieved 2018-10-29.
^ abcKane, Mark (2019-01-25). "Top 3 Plug-In Hybrid Cars In U.S. In 2018: Prius Prime, Clarity, Volt". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2019-01-27. The Chevrolet Volt is the best selling plug-in electric car in the U.S. with 152,144 units sold through the end of 2018. American sales totaled 20,349 units in 2017 and 18,306 in 2018. Combined sales of both generations of the Toyota Prius plug-in hybrid totaled more than 93,000 units
^"46% of Toyota Motor Europe (TME) sales in H1 are self-charging hybrid electric vehicles" (Press release). Brussels: Toyota Europe Newsroom. 2018-07-11. Retrieved 2019-02-01. Toyota sold 1,693 Prius PHEV during the first half of 2018.
^ abCobb, Jeff (2017-01-09). "Nissan's Quarter-Millionth Leaf Means It's The Best-Selling Plug-in Car In History". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-10. As of December 2016[update], the Nissan Leaf is the world's best-selling plug-in car in history with more than 250,000 units delivered, followed by the Tesla Model S with over 158,000 sales, and the Volt/Ampera family of vehicles with 134,500 vehicles sold.
^ abc"Chevrolet Volt Sales Numbers". GM Authority. January 2019. Retrieved 2019-02-01. Canadian sales totaled 4,313 units in 2017 and 4,114 in 2018 through November.
^ abCain, Timothy (October 2018). "Chevrolet Volt Sales Figures". Good Car Bad Car. Retrieved 2018-12-01.
^ abc"Buick Velite 5 ( Chinese Car Sales Data)". Car Sales Base. 17 May 2017. Retrieved 2019-02-01. Buick Velite 5 sales in China totaled 1,629 units in 2017 and 2,688 in 2018.
^Cobb, Jeff (2016-12-12). "Chevy Volt and Nissan Leaf Celebrate Their Sixth-Year Anniversary". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-12-14. Global cumulative sales of plug-in electric vehicles totaled about 1.9 million units through November 2016. The Nissan Leaf is the world's leading plug-in car with more than 240,000 units delivered. As of November 2016[update], the Tesla Model S ranks next with over 151,000, followed by the Vollt/Ampera family of vehicles with 130,500 vehicles sold including over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe, the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV with about 116,500 units, and the Toyota Prius PHV with about 76,200.
^Kane, Mark (2022-01-05). "US: Toyota Sold Over 52,000 Plug-In Cars In 2021". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2022-02-10. "Toyota sold 25,042 units of the Prius Prime in the U.S. in 2021"
^"Toyota Motor Europe sales increase by +8% in 2021 to achieve a record 6.4% market share" (Press release). Brussels: Toyota Europe Newsroom. 2021-01-13. Retrieved 2022-02-10. "A total of 1,462 Toyota Prius PHEVs were sold in Europe in 2021."
^ abKane, Mark (2018-01-26). "BYD #1 In World For Plug-In Electric Car Sales In 2017, Beats Tesla Again". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2018-10-31. During 2017, BYD Qin sales totaled 20,738 units and BYD Tang totaled 14,592 units.
^Staff (2017-01-19). "Best-selling China-made EVs in 2016". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2017-01-25. Three BYD Auto models topped the Chinese ranking of best-selling new energy passenger cars in 2016. The BYD Tang SUV was the top selling plug-in electric car in China in 2016 with 31,405 units sold, followed by the BYD Qin with 21,868 units sold, and ranking third overall in 2016 was the BYD e6 with 20,605 units.
^Staff (2016-02-13). "Best-selling China-made SUVs in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-01-17. A total of 18,375 Tangs were sold in China in 2015.
^Staff (2016-02-11). "Opel bringt 2017 neues Elektroauto" [Opel brings new electric car in 2017]. Autohaus.de (in German). Retrieved 2019-02-01. About 10,000 Opel Amperas were sold in Europe by the end of 2015.
^Jeff Cobb (2015-11-04). "GM Sells Its 100,000th Volt in October". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-11-04.About 102,000 units of the Volt/Ampera family have been sold worldwide by the end of October 2015.
^Mike Costello (2015-04-25). "The Holden Volt is dead". Car Advice. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025–2030) Technologies Archived 2020-08-12 at the Wayback Machine (includes BEVs and PHEVs), Argonne National Laboratory, June 2016.
Driving Electrification – A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles, International Council on Clean Transportation, May 2014.
Effects of Regional Temperature on Electric Vehicle Efficiency, Range, and Emissions in the United States, Tugce Yuksel and Jeremy Michalek, Carnegie Mellon University. 2015
Modernizing vehicle regulations for electrification, International Council on Clean Transportation, October 2018.
NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Vehicle Owner/General Public Archived 2013-12-09 at the Wayback Machine
NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department Archived 2013-12-09 at the Wayback Machine
New Energy Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles purchased in 2009
Overview of Tax Incentives for Electrically Chargeable Vehicles in the E.U.
Mitchell, William J.; Borroni-Bird, Christopher; Burns, Lawrence D. (2010). Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century (1st. ed.). The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01382-6. Archived from the original on 2010-06-09. Retrieved 2010-07-18.
